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StatPearls [Internet].

Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE): Quality-assessed Reviews [Internet].

York (UK): Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (UK); 1995-.

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Intermittent Inhaled Corticosteroids and Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists for Asthma [Internet].

Sobieraj DM, Baker WL, Weeda ER, et al.

Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2018 Mar. (Comparative Effectiveness Reviews, No. 194.)

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Diagnosis and Management of Infantile Hemangioma [Internet].

Chinnadurai S, Snyder K, Sathe N, et al.

Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2016 Jan. (Comparative Effectiveness Reviews, No. 168.)

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Endotext [Internet].

Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Blackman MR, et al., editors.

South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000-.

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LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury [Internet].

Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2012-.

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Scoping systematic review of treatments for eczema.

Nankervis H, Thomas KS, Delamere FM, et al.

Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library; 2016 May. (Programme Grants for Applied Research, No. 4.7.)

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Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine. 6th edition.

Kufe DW, Pollock RE, Weichselbaum RR, et al., editors.

Hamilton (ON): BC Decker; 2003.

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WHO recommendations on: Antenatal corticosteroids for improving preterm birth outcomes.

Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022.

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Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed®) [Internet].

Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Child Health and Human Development; 2006-.

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Drug Therapy for Early Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Systematic Review Update [Internet].

Donahue KE, Gartlehner G, Schulman ER, et al.

Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2018 Jul. (Comparative Effectiveness Review, No. 211.)

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The Clinical Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Bortezomib and Thalidomide in Combination Regimens with an Alkylating Agent and a Corticosteroid for the First-Line Treatment of Multiple Myeloma: A Systematic Review and Economic Evaluation.

Picot J, Cooper K, Bryant J, et al.

Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library; 2011 Dec. (Health Technology Assessment, No. 15.41.)

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Endocrinology: An Integrated Approach.

Nussey S, Whitehead S.

Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers; 2001.

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Pharmacologic and Nonpharmacologic Therapies in Adult Patients With Exacerbation of COPD: A Systematic Review [Internet].

Dobler CC, Morrow AS, Farah MH, et al.

Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2019 Oct. (Comparative Effectiveness Review, No. 221.)

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Mepolizumab (Nucala) [Internet].

Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2016 Nov.

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Progressive exercise compared with best-practice advice, with or without corticosteroid injection, for rotator cuff disorders: the GRASP factorial RCT.

Hopewell S, Keene DJ, Heine P, et al.

Southampton (UK): National Institute for Health and Care Research; 2021 Aug. (Health Technology Assessment, No. 25.48.)

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GeneReviews® [Internet].

Adam MP, Feldman J, Mirzaa GM, et al., editors.

Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-2024.

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Textbook on Scar Management: State of the Art Management and Emerging Technologies [Internet].

Téot L, Mustoe TA, Middelkoop E, et al., editors.

Cham (CH): Springer; 2020.

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Early Biologic Treatment versus Conventional Treatment for the Management of Crohn’s Disease: A Review of Comparative Clinical Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness [Internet].

Thompson W, Argáez C.

Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2019 Feb 13.

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Ustekinumab (Stelara) [Internet].

Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2017 Apr.

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Figure 6.

Adrenal Steroid Synthesis. Z Glom = zona glomerulosa; Z Fas = zona fasciculata; Z Ret = zona reticularis; 19-H = 19-Hydroxylase; HSD = Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; P450aro = aromatase; 5alpha-Red = 5alpha-Reductase. The 3 adrenal cortex zones Z Glom, Z Fas, and Z Ret stand above the “column” of hormones that are produced in the respective zone. The steroidogenic enzymes on the left starting with P450scc (Desmolase) are listed in order for “vertical and horizontal reading”, i.e. Desmolase converts cholesterol to pregnenolone, 3beta-OH-Steroid Dehydrogenase I/II convert pregnenolone to progesterone, 17-OH-Pregnenolone to 17-OH-Progesterone, and P450c11 converts deoxycorticosterone to 18-OH-Corticosterone and 11-Deoxycortisol to cortisol, etc. (modified from ref. 35: Koch CA. Encyclopedia of Endocrine Disease, 2004)

Overview of Endocrine Hypertension.

Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, et al., editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000-.
FIGURE 2-2Allostasis in the Autonomic Nervous System and HPA Axis

Allostatic systems respond to stress (upper panel) by initiating the adaptive response, sustaining it until the stress ceases, and then shutting it off (recovery). Allostatic responses are initiated (lower panel) by an increase in circulating catecholamines from the autonomic nervous system and glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex. This sets into motion adaptive processes that alter the structure and function of a variety of cellls and tissues. These processes are initiated through intracellular receptors for steroid hormones, plasma-membrane receptors, and second-messenger systems for catecholamines. Cross-talk between catecholamines and glucocorticoid-receptor signaling systems can occur. From McEwen, 1998, by permission of the Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.

Biobehavioral Factors in Health and Disease.

Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health and Behavior: Research, Practice, and Policy. Health and Behavior: The Interplay of Biological, Behavioral, and Societal Influences. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2001.
Figure 62-1

Principal pathways for the biosynthesis of adrenocorticosteroids. (Reproduced with permission from Haynes and Murad.¹⁸²)

Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex.

Kufe DW, Pollock RE, Weichselbaum RR, et al., editors. Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine. 6th edition. Hamilton (ON): BC Decker; 2003.
Figure 1.

Immune-Endocrine changes in male patients with tuberculosis (TB). Cytokine release by the T Lymphocytes stimulate the production of releasing factors (RFs) particularly Corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) by the hypothalamus. Increased corticotrophin release from the pituitary is followed by the increased production of cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) which is increased in TB, in turn, inhibits DHEA production by adrenal cells despite corticotrophin related stimulation to produce increased DHEA. Overall, in patients with TB there is a decrease in the adrenal DHEA production in contrast to patients with acute infections. This unbalanced cortisol/DHEA production ratios from the adrenal cortex along with a reduction in testosterone from the testes favor a Th1→Th2 T Lymphocyte immune shift. The action of cytokines and cortisol on the adipose tissue leads to reduced amounts of leptin production. Leptin is also an immune-stimulant. TB patients also display an increased production of growth hormone (GH) and prolactin probably related to the protracted inflammation, in addition to augmented levels of thyroid hormones via an increase in the pituitary production of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). However, despite an increase in TSH there is no change in Free T4 and a decline in Free T3 hormones because of the inhibitory effect of TGF- β This overall pattern is responsible for anorexia, low food intake, lipid mobilization, decrease in protein synthesis which all contribute to the state of cachexia seen in patients with advanced TB (adapted from D’Atillio et al) (12).

Infections in Endocrinology: Tuberculosis.

Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, et al., editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000-.